A Brief History of Oak Woodland in the Midwest in General, and Southern Wisconsin in Particular

This is the first post in a series of three about Wisconsin oak woodland history, health and restoration. In this first installment, we’ll cover an overview of oak woodland types in our region and how human activities have impacted them from pre-settlement times to today. In order to keep this brief and digestible, this post simplifies complex ecology and history. 

A lot of people take our woodlands in the Midwest for granted and many people don’t give them much thought. However, we’re at a critical time for our oak woodlands. Many are nearing a breaking point - a point of ecological collapse from which restoration will be difficult, if not impossible. So what is going on? To understand that, you need to understand what oak woodlands were like two centuries ago or more, and how human-caused changes have created the more depauperate woodlands we see today.

Pre-Settlement Woodlands of the Midwest

In pre-Euro-American settlement times, the most common woodland types in the region were:

Savannas - The Wisconsin DNR calls these “oak openings” with as few as one oak tree per acre. Those scattered trees were usually bur oak or white oak, but black oak savannas occurred on sites with sandy soils.

Savanna restoration at Pheasant Branch Conservancy.

Oak Woodlands - A very open canopy, no more than 50-80% canopy cover. A more diverse assemblage of oaks inhabited these woodlands, with some hickory and rarely other tree species.

A white oak woodland are in the Stone Barn Savanna complex in Nachusa Grassland.

These were very open woodland types with a lot of sunlight reaching the ground layer vegetation. As a result, there was abundant energy to drive photosynthesis, which allowed for a rich flora of wildflowers, grasses and shrubs. These plants then served as the food source for pollinators, grazing insects and mammalian grazers such as deer, elk and occasionally, bison. These insects fed a great diversity of songbirds and game birds such as turkey, quail and grouse, and large predators such as wolves, bobcats, mountain lions and black bears.

These were the dominant “forest” types in the southern 1/3rd of Wisconsin, all of Iowa, northern Missouri, and the northern 3/4th of Illinois and Indiana. In this post I’ll just be focusing the portion of Wisconsin south of the Tension Zone to narrow this discussion to our local conditions. These were fire-regulated systems, with frequent, low-intensity fires with a burn return interval of roughly 1-3 years. Oaks, being amongst the most fire tolerant trees in our region, out-competed fire-intolerant trees. Across most of the landscape, trees that were not in the Quercus (oak) genus, were not often seen.

This map from the UW Extension illustrates the Tension Zone in WI, south of it, in lime-green oak woodlands were the dominant "forest" type.

On Finley map of pre-settlement vegetation types, the brown and orange are oak woodlands and savannas respectively. See this link for a more detailed PDF.

More dense canopy forests were uncommon in southern Wisconsin and restricted to areas where the topography and hydrology reduced the frequency and intensity of fires. These were limited to areas such as floodplain forests, areas with lake and wetland complexes, and steep north facing slopes in the Driftless region, particularly where wetlands or streams were at the bottom of that slope. These small forested areas varied quite a bit in composition so it can be difficult to generalize about them. Overall they were more often inhabited by trees that were more tolerant of shade, but intolerant of fire such as maple, basswood, cherry, walnut, elm, aspen, hackberries and others. Some oaks were present as well, particularly red oak, and occasionally white oak. Though there was more diversity in the tree canopy, the ground layer, which received much less energy from the sun, was accordingly less productive and therefore had less animal and plant diversity and abundance compared to more open woodlands. Still, a healthy and intact hardwood forest is much more rich than most woodlands today.

On a landscape level, these more shaded closed-canopy forest communities were mere pinpoints or ribbons on a landscape dominated by open prairie, savanna and woodland. So why are most of our wooded areas dense with trees and brush today?

Oak woodlands, savannas, prairies, and wetlands in our region were maintained by frequent, low-intensity fires. Fires lit by by the Ho-Chunk, Potawatomi, Sauk and Dakota Peoples who lived across this region could at times burn for days, and travel across hundreds of square miles. As a result, much of the landscape likely burned nearly every year. Woodlands may have burned every 1-3 years. Most people today are familiar with prairie fires, but there was little to stop these fires from simply continuing into woodlands and wetlands. These fires kept woody species suppressed, especially fire intolerant trees. 

A modern prescribed fire backing through an oak savanna.

Oaks are on average more tolerant of fire than other genera of trees. This is exemplified by bur oak which has a number of adaptations to fire. First, they have a large acorn with a lot of stored energy, which allows them to set down roots into the ground quickly upon germination. Second, bur oaks rapidly put on root mass. Many people believe that oaks grow slowly, but this isn't strictly true. Oaks put on much of their growth below ground in a massive root system. The benefit of this is that if the above-ground portion of the tree is destroyed by fire, animal activity, or weather, they have substantial reserves underground to re-route rapidly. There are reported cases where oaks have been burned over regularly for decades. These trees never got larger than a shrub above ground, but could have a root system as large as a mature tree. In the event that there was an absence of fire for just a few years, these ‘grub oaks’ could grow rapidly to a mature size where they were less vulnerable to fire. This brings me to the final adaptation bur oaks have to fire: thick insulating bark that, once mature, can withstand the frequent, low-intensity fires that were common in the region.

Other management activities conducted by indigenous peoples such as wood harvesting, materials gathering, food foraging and agriculture also had an impact on the structure and ecology of these woodlands. It is clear that active management by indigenous peoples across the Midwest was what maintained a rich mosaic landscape of prairie, savanna and woodland. Before contact with Europeans, these people thrived with a suitable abundance of game, gathered foods, crops, medicines, building materials and other resources available for their use. Good stewardship by indigenous nations also provided resources for a diversity and abundance of plants, animals, fungi and all the other forms of life that inhabit a rich and complex ecosystem. We should be grateful for the stewardship the Potowatami and Ho-Chuck provided for this ecosystem for so many generations (and their continued leadership in environmental stewardship today). 

Changes in Land Use with Euro-American Settlement:

The Public Land Survey of Wisconsin began in 1832. Though there was scattered Euro-American settlement before this time, more settlers arrived in larger numbers from the mid-1830’s to the 1860’s. This change in control of the land from indigenous nations to colonizers of European ancestry had a number of profound impacts on the landscape. Some of the most impactful actions of settlers included:

1. Settlers partitioned up the land; developed roads, plowed fields. This had the effect of fragmenting natural communities into smaller units, reducing the ability of plants and small animals to disperse from one habitat patch to another.
2. New settlers actively suppressed fires. New roads and agricultural fields became unintentional fire breaks, preventing fires from spreading. Active suppression, including fighting wildfires, reduced fire's impact on the landscape further. Fires were effectively eliminated by the Smokey The Bear era in the late 20th century. This eliminated a key ecosystem regulator from the landscape.
3. Many woodlands were logged for building materials. This resulted in the loss of these woodlands as they were transitioned to grazing land or agricultural fields. 
4. Other woodlands were left uncut and used as graze land. This kept trees and brush suppressed, at least temporarily, but also greatly reduced the diversity and abundance of native wildflowers, grasses and shrubs in the woodlands.
5. Grazing dairy cattle was widespread across the entire landscape and was also very intense denuding all vegetation from the soil surface.

This photo from the Driftless region in the 1930's gives you some idea how bad erosion could be. All indications are that heavy soil loss was common throughout the Midwest at this time.

Dairy farming really picked up steam in Wisconsin in the 1860’s, peaking in the early 20th Century. As a result, it's likely that just about every woodland in the region was heavily grazed for over 100 years. The impacts of this grazing are apparent today in many woodlands:

• There is a low diversity of native wildflowers. For example, heavily grazed woods often have few spring ephemeral wildflowers such as spring beauty, trillium and trout lily.
• Heavily grazed woodlands often have an abundance of thorny shrubs, particularly raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries and prickly ash.
• Erosion can be observed by seeing the root flair and exposed root on old oak trees. Some sites have lost 6-10” of topsoil. As a result, these soils are of poor quality, and often rocky. This also means the seed bank for native plants has been washed away as well.

In the latter half of the 20th century the dairy industry in Wisconsin changed dramatically. The number of small dairy producers decreased over time and dairy production became more industrialized. The impacts on woodlands in the region is apparent. 

• First, you can often see in areal photographs woodlands that were fairly open in the late 1930 and into the 1960’s become more dense with trees in the 1970s and 1980’s. This trend continued to the closed tree canopies and dark woodlands we see today. 
• Second, you can see these effects on the ground. There are many non-oak trees in formerly oak dominated woodlands that are small in diameter (<10”) and less than 40 years old.
• Third, you do not see young oaks because they need more sunlight than is available to successfully germinate, grow and reach maturity.

Edna Taylor Conservation Park in Madison circa 1937. Overall, this is an example of a savanna environment. Note that this image was taken in June, with the leaves on the trees.

Edna Taylor Conservation Park in Madison in 1974. Notice how much more dense the wooded area is, with additional trees sprouting elsewhere in what used to be pasture.

Edna Taylor Conservation Park in Madison in 2014. Note that this is an early-April, leaf-off image, and yet the woodland looks much more dense than its 1937 counterpart! You can see restoration work has begun in the southern 1/3rd of the park but not the north.

Many invasive plants were introduced that have spread rapidly into these already compromised woodland habitats. Common buckthorn and bush honeysuckle are the most common examples of invasive woody plants in our region, though there are many others. These started to arrive with intentional introductions in the 1960’s through the early 1980’s. From isolated introductions they spread across the landscape. These invasive plants further impacted already degraded woodlands, further increasing shading and erosion and suppressing the growth of oaks, wildflowers, grasses and the wildlife that depend on these plants for survival. These conditions are ideal for other invasive plants such as garlic mustard, motherwort and dames rocket to establish and spread rapidly.

This "wall of buckthorn" is neither 'natural' nor healthy. But sadly this is the most common state of our oak woodlands today. This is an ecological dead end. Restoration work is needed to get things back on track.

Conclusion

We are roughly two centuries past a time when our oak woodlands were healthy and well maintained. Nearly 200 years of fragmenting, degrading and ignoring our woodlands have left them in a critical condition today. These systems are resilient and full of living things ranging from oak trees, to wildflowers, to rusty patch bumble bees continue to fight hard for survival. But we are now at an inflection point; these systems can’t take much more before they collapse. The old oaks will only live so long, and conditions are poor for their replacement.

We still have time to act. But we should act now. With proper management, we can restore our oak woodlands to health. This involves removing brush and excessive non-oak trees, controlling invasive ground-layer plants, and reintroducing native plant species that have been lost by seeding and planting. As for the wildlife, it really is a ‘if you make it they will come’ situation. Once there are food resources available for them they return remarkably quickly, especially birds.

In my next post, I’ll share some ways that you can evaluate the health of your woodland, even if you aren’t a trained ecologist. And following that we’ll talk about the many ways that restoring your woodland will benefit your woods, yourself and your community (natural or otherwise).

ACTION ALERT: Save Bell Bowl Prairie!

UPDATE 10/28/21: In the face of multiple lawsuits by local environmental advocacy groups, airport has relented! At least temporarily. According to the local news channel website, mystateline.com, Zack Oakley, the Deputy Director of Operations and Planning at RFD, released the following statement: “During the coming months, we will continue to work with the FAA, IDNR, and the USFWS to ensure the project continues and we can plan and develop in compliance with the Federal and state regulations for the endangered species. The FAA is reinitiating consultation under the Endangered Species Act with the USFWS to evaluate impacts to the Rusty Patched Bumble Bee, so planned construction initially scheduled to continue on November 1 will be suspended until further consultation is completed. We anticipate the resumption of the project in the spring of 2022.” 

This doesn't exactly proclaim that the airport is committed to preserving the remaining ~18 acres of virgin prairie at Bell Bowl. As such, local conservationists are cautiously optimistic, and watching for the airports next move carefully. Be sure you keep yourself informed at the links below. Special Thanks to the Natural Lands Institute for spearheading the resistance.

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This is my statement, on behalf of Good Oak Ecological Services, on the imminent threat to Bell Bowl Prairie adjacent to the Chicago-Rockford International Airport in Rockford, IL. This irreplaceable prairie remnant is scheduled to be destroyed on Nov. 1st, unless we can convince the Greater Rockford Airport Authority Board of Commissioners and other stakeholders to yield to public outcry and literally stop the bulldozers.

Find out what you can do at: https://www.savebellbowlprairie.org/home/#what-can-i-do

Keep updated on the latest news at: https://www.facebook.com/groups/savebellbowlprairie

 

#SaveBellBowlPrairie

 

I was born, and raised on a farm in “The Prairie State.” I was actively involved in Boy Scouts, and did a lot of camping, hiking, biking and fishing as a child. But like most Illinois residents, I went my entire youth without seeing an actual prairie. That was, until my first week at the University of Illinois, when I accidentally signed-up for a prairie tour at Quad Day. What I experienced on that tour was so stunning and delightful that it shook my understanding of the world, and reset the course of my career and my life.

But I understand that most people have not been as fortunate as I have to have such an experience. After all, there is so precious little prairie left (less than 1/100th of 1%, or the equivalent of 1 penny left out of $100), that it’s no wonder that most people have never had the opportunity to visit a real prairie remnant. And therefore most people have never had the chance to develop a concept of what once was, and what we have left.

So, it is difficult for us to put into perspective what the loss of Bell Bowl Prairie would mean. For a more contemporary example: Suppose that, 50 years from now, we have logged, slashed and burned our way across the Amazon basin, and there are just a few-dozen acres of Amazon rainforest left. These ecosystem fragments are scattered across thousands of square miles of a landscape dominated tropical graze-land and soybean fields. And then, what if there was a plan to bulldoze one of these last gems of rainforest for something as meaningless as a highway expansion? Shouldn’t we protect these last remaining fragments? Shouldn’t we simply move the highway someplace else?

Or what if, 50 years from now we have destroyed all but the last patches of coral reef around the globe through climate change? Should we be willing to wreck one of the last few intact coral reefs in the world, or rather, in all of the universe, for something as relatively inconsequential as a port expansion project?

This is exactly what is being proposed being done to the Bell Bowl Prairie at the Chicago-Rockford International Airport. One of the last few original fragments of tallgrass prairie in the world, and furthermore it is a specialized habitat called a gravel hill prairie, is scheduled to be destroyed November 1st. And this destruction is entirely unnecessary. The airport owns hundreds of acres just slightly further south where this expansion could go instead. This is not a case of ‘the economy vs nature;’ this destruction of our irreplaceable natural heritage is entirely unnecessary.

There are thousands of species of plants, animals and fungi - yes thousands - that inhabit the Bell Bowl Prairie, most of which are now rare and nearing extinction globally. But to highlight at least one species in particular, there is the Rusty Patch Bumblebee which is listed federally as an Endangered Species. Endangered status is supposed to be the greatest level of protection possible for the species at most risk of extinction, from ceasing to exist forever. However, this status is not protecting this population of bees and the habitat they rely on for continued survival.

Delaying the bulldozing of Bell Bowl Prairie until November 1st is meaningless in preventing the destruction of this population of endangered pollinators. Rusty Patch Bumblebees nest primarily in abandoned burrows of small mammals. The queen bees survive through the winter sleeping in these burrows, which are certainly located within the bounds of the prairie, until they can emerge in the warm days of early spring. Whether these bees are killed while they are above ground, or unsuspectingly in their sleep - these bees are still being killed. Surely, this destruction of endangered animals violates the intention of the Endangered Species Act.

As the world’s premier biologist, E. O. Wilson has said: “We should preserve every scrap of biodiversity as priceless while we learn to use it and come to understand what it means to humanity.” Or, in the words of pioneering conservationist Aldo Leopold: “…To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering.”

Infrastructure can be moved or replaced. Though this development project at the airport may seem urgent now, it can be changed. The same is not true for a prairie. 

I have spent my 25-year career learning about ecology and implementing projects to restore and attempt to replace natural areas. As someone who has dedicated their life to this work, I can tell you that the complex matrix of living organisms that is a prairie remnant is something that we do not today, and probably will never have, the knowledge and technology to replace. This is particularly the case if we needlessly destroy all of our scraps, wheels and cogs before we even try to restore what we have damaged.

There is another path we can take. Do the right thing and turn the bulldozers around. Rework the project plan for a location a bit further south. Preserve this rare gem of original Illinois prairie. In the future we can celebrate what the Greater Rockford Airport Authority has done to preserve and steward this site, and share it with the local community, and visitors alike.

I am asking those with the power to change this, the Greater Rockford Airport Authority Board of Commissioners, Illinois Governor JB Pritzker and others, to please, take the following steps:

1. Delay and reposition this development project to an alternate location where it will not destroy or negatively impact Bell Bowl Prairie.
2. Make assurances that this prairie will be preserved perpetually, such as submitting it for protection as a State Nature Preserve.
3. Work with experts in the field to plant a native vegetation buffer around the prairie remnant to help protect it from impacts of surrounding development.
4. Allow the establishment of a volunteer stewardship group to access and conduct management of the prairie in order to restore, preserve and enhance the Bell Bowl Prairie.

Most Sincerely,
Frank Hassler
Owner, and Chief Ecologist
Good Oak Ecological Services

PS: I have never been to Bell Bowl Prairie (I can only hope that I will have a chance in the future!), but I thought I'd finish with some photos I have taken at other gravel hill prairies that are here in southern Wisconsin:

Black Earth Rettenmund Prairie in July.

 

Pasque flower at Westport Drumlin, among the first flower to bloom each April.

Birdsfoot Violet has leaves like no Violet you have ever seen. These were at Westport Drumlin Prairie.

Hoary puccoon, and the other prairie puccoons, are plants that are only found on prairie remnants because we have not been able to figure out how to grow them from seed. They will only survive as long as we preserver remnants like Bell Bowl Prairie.There were photographed at nearby Nachusa Grassland.

Aphrodite Fritallary on rough blazing star at Black Earth Rettenmund Prairie.

Wood lily at Black Earth Rettenmund Prairie.

Black swallowtail on dwarf blazingstar at Black Earth Rettenmund Prairie.

Rehabilitating Middleton Hills Prairie

 We've been working for the Middleton Hills Neighborhood Association for 11 years now, and I thought this might be a good opportunity to share an example of the work involved in, and successful results from rehabilitation of a failed prairie planting.

Here's the location. Take a visit if you're in the area, it looks spectacular now!:

2010: Introduction

When I first saw the site in fall of 2010, the "prairie" was literally more weed than it was prairie plants. Though there were native prairie plant scattered throughout from the seeding done a few years prior, I would say that coverage was 80% or more weeds and invasive plants, only 20%, or less, natives. Unfortunately, this is not an uncommon result from poorly planned and implemented prairie plantings done by folks who don't have a background in ecological land management. When painting a prairie, three things are critical:

1. Thorough site preparation in the growing season, or two before the planting to eliminate weeds and invasive plants
2. Spreading a sufficient amount of a diverse native seed mix that is tuned to the exact soil and sunlight conditions of the site
3. Thorough stewardship, weed management, monitoring and interseeding, if needed, for several years after planting.

This site had none of that, and the results were predictable. I informed the representative of the Neighborhood Association who was showing me around that it would be faster, easier and less expensive if we just tilled the whole site in and started from scratch following the guidelines above. The Association didn't want to do that, they wanted to retain what they had so far. So, I developed a plan to start getting this prairie on the right track.

In the bottom here you can see a lot of birdsfoot trefoil, an invasive perennial. A few of the taller plants are prairie species, including New England aster and false sunflower. Indian grass flops over as it has no prairie neighbors to lean on!

The walking path through the prairie was itself a problem. A common issue at prairie edges is lawn grasses spreading into the prairie. Fescue is pretty easy to control with fire, but Kentucky blue grass (not from Kentucky!) is an aggressive spreader and difficult to control. Kentucky blue grass is one of the most widespread invasive plants in North America. 

You can see the native Indian grass in th background, most of the grass in the foreground is exotic fescue. The light green plant spreading in the center is western ragweed. This rhizomatous perennial was a new one to me, it was probably brought in on the tires or tracks of the equipment used to establish the above power lines. It seems do do well in this area where the soil is particularly compacted.

So much Canada goldenrod! Though this species is native (and does provide a great nectar resource for pollinators), it is very aggressive and can spread to form monocultures that exclude all other species. Though this species is an important one to suppress, it would have to wait as we had bigger fish to fry in the mean time.

2011: Work Begins

We set up an annual budget that the association could set-aside for prairie maintenance, and did as much as we could each year within the budget, with the goal of slowly eliminating invasive plants and weeds, and introducing native plants over time. Below are some photos taken in July of 2011, of the results of our first efforts at weed management during June of 2011. 

In the early years, we often used an herbicide called Milestone. Plants in the aster family (Asteraceae) and legume family (Fabaceae) are particularly susceptible to this herbicide, so is leafy spurge. Many plants in other families are not harmed by this herbicide. This allowed us to be very selective when trying to control Canada thistle (aster family) and birdsfoot trefoil (legume family). However, a lot of prairie species are in those families too, so we had to carefully work around the remaining natives.

Western ragweed carpeted large areas in the prairie, with very few native prairie plant surviving in-between. This species would prove to be a bit of a puzzle to develop a control strategy for. Not only does this species spread quickly by rhizomes, it seems to be strongly allelopathic.

Dead leafy spurge. Note how the Milestone had no impact on the grasses around it.

Birdsfoot trefoil creeping from the lawn path into the prairie. We're going to have to do something about that.

A patch of Canada thistle sprayed while working to avoid surrounding vegetation.

Here I sprayed Canada thistle on either side of these couple of native plants. Notice how the wild bergamot on the left, which is in the mint family is completely unaffected. On the right is false sunflower, which is absorbed a small amount of the Milestone either though drift or through the soil. It is injured by this, but will recover and look normal the following year. If you look carefully at other photos in this series you can see other native plants with curling stems, almost all of which survived.

It wasn't all bad news! Here we see wild bergamot, false sunflower and butterfly milkweed blooming. There is also some rosinweed in the upper right, and stiff goldenrod to the lower right.

Prickly lettuce and motherwort are also weeds, but they are not as aggressive or impactful as some other species, and we had to let them be for a while while we got the worst invasive species under control.

Its a challenging situation when you have reed canary grass mixed in with native plants like this. Carefully timed treatments are important to harm this aggressive exotic grass while minimizing harm to the native plants. Another good example why it is important to plan ahead and do a good job establishing a prairie in the first place so you aren't face with these challenges.

2012: First Burn!

We conducted an early burn in March of 2012 to clear off existing vegetation and to encourage the weeds to come up. Why do we want to encourage the weeds? By creating conditions that promote the growth of exotic cool-season grasses and weeds like birdsfoot trefoil and Canada thistle in April, we could treat them with herbicide before most of the native plants emerged for the season and while all of the plants were small and separated, making spot spraying the weeds and avoiding the native plants easier.

Note also that 2012 was a drought year. We had some 80-degre days in March, which allowed for such an early burn, but also left the vegetation looking sparse and dry by summer. Native plants are adapted to our local climate, including periodic droughts, so in the long run I think this favored the prairie species over the invaders.

Up until now, the biggest priority was eliminating invasive plants. Now that we were seeing progress on that front, I believe the fall of 2012 was the first year we started to seed more prairie plants back into the site. Interseeding would continue to a greater or lesser extent, for every year there-after.

First Burn! Nice clean control lines in a tight urban environment. The crew did a great job that day. You can see Joy in the upper-right putting down a wetline in advance of the fire.

Pale purple coneflower, the only Echinacea native to Wisconsin, is really starting to thrive after the burn and competition from weeds being removed. Sarah does some hand-weeding in the background.

2013: Eliminating Sources of Weeds

Instead of another burn in 2013, I decided the best use of the budget for the year was to eliminate the weed source that was the mowed path down the middle. So we used herbicide to kill the vegetation in the path (and where they had spread into the adjacent prairie as well) and covered it with hardwood chip mulch shortly there after. That summer we were able to start to do more manual weed management.

Mulched path eliminates some of the edge effects of having such a small prairie in an urban area, and directly eliminates the source of many weeds.

Athena works on pulling a stubborn wild carrot. It is not uncommon for biennial weeds like carrot and sweet clover to be abundant the growing season after a burn We pulled thousands of wild carrot on this stewardship visit and the following one.

2014: Recovery begins

Another Burn in the spring of 2014, it wasn't as dramatic since we had killed so-many weeds, there was less fuel for the fire to burn. We also conducted the burn fairly late to have the greatest impact on exotic cool-season grasses and non-native weeds. We followed-up with the same early-season weed treatment. The burns themselves had a lot of impact, encouraging native plants and weakening the weeds. This combined with four seasons of fairly aggressive herbicide application were beginning to pay-off.

Ray checks the fireline. You can see the exotic cool-season grasses already greening-up in the prairie. They will be weekend by this fire.

Compare this with the 2012 image of pale purple coneflower. 2014 is so much more lush!

First blooming compass plant.

A variety of prairie plants filling in a real that used to be weeds! Still, to my land-manager eye, I can't help but see the small yellow flowers, which are birdsfoot trefoil, and the reed canary grass seed-head at the bottom.

I remember feeling pretty victorious when I took this photo, a swath pf prairie plants, butterfly milkweed in the foreground, pale purple coneflower in the background, along with fleabanes and penstemon.

Spiderwort! Still some little yellow dots of birdsfoot trefoil among the vegetation though. We're on the right track, but there is more work to be done.

2015 to 2019: Steady Progress and New Challenges

We had gotten the worst of the weeds under control at this point. The patient was out of critical condition and now it was time to move them to physical therapy. Another project manager, Rob took over for me at Middleton Hills for several of these years. He was able to back-off on the use of herbicide substantially, almost all of our work at this point was manual and mechanical control of individual invasive plants. With one exception; we used a very targeted technique called leaf-spritzing to begin to control the Canada goldenrod. The approach involved using just a couple drops of concentrated Garlon 4 herbicide (the same  concentration we used to kill buckthorn stumps) on each stem of the clone. Using this approach, we were able to push back the large areas of goldenrod without harming any neighboring prairie plants. 

Rob also focused much more on adding more native prairie flora to the site through annual fall seedings and even planting some live plants as the budget allowed.

Dramatic spring fire in 2015.

The prairie begins to fill in more completely after several years of interseeding.

A red admiral butterfly nectarine on pale purple coneflower.

A stand of stiff goldenrod in early-fall 2015 where once we had nothing but Western ragweed!

This area ws previously solid Canada goldenrod (same utility pole from the 2010 image above). The good news is that we have spiderwort (blue flowers) coming in along with foxglove beardtongue (white flowers). The bad news is that there is also a lot of curly dock filling in the gaps where goldenrod used to be. More weed management and more seeding are needed. We use a Parsnip Predator to pop out the curly dock and remove the plant, and the thousands of seeds on each, from the site.

2020 and 2021: Glamor Shots

We have largely moved into the maintenance phase of managing this prairie. These years we did regular but short visits to control many of the above-mentioned weeds in the prairie at just the right time for each. We focused on continuing to beat back the Canada goldenrod, and the weeds that came-up in their place. We also were able to work on improving the surroundings around the prairie. In January of 2020 and 2021, we cleared invasive buckthorn, honeysuckle, mulberry and boxelder from areas in and around to the prairie to reduce their impact (mostly via shade) and potential to invade.

Wild lupine.

This patch of reed canary grass avoided our wrath for a while, but we took it down in mid-May 2020. Photo was taken about 2 weeks after treatment. On the left we used a glyphosate-based herbicide (AquaNeat), on the right we used a grass-specific herbicide sethoxydim (Poast) which took longer to act, and was somewhat less effective. Below right was my accidental control group, where I forgot to spray it.

Wild bergamot, switch grass and false sunflower

Hoary vervain among other, previously mentioned prairie flowers.

Monarch nectarine on purple prairie clover.

According to Seek, this is a black and gold bumblebee feeding on wild bergamot. She was a big one!

Fresh mulch! Hardwood chips are more durable than shredded bark mulch, and easier to walk on, though they can wash-away more easily in areas of water flow.

And the Future?

In the short term, we still have perennial weeds to control. Birdsfoot trefoil persists, Canada goldenrod is on the decline, but not gone yet, and Western ragweed has made an alarming comeback. Some early-fall mowing followed by a carefully targeted late-fall spot herbicide should go a long way towards control of these. We will burn again next spring and follow-up on these, as well as remaining exotic cool-season grasses.

Over the next couple of years the amount of our work needed on this site will begin to diminish. We should get to a point soon where we conduct a burn every 2-3 years, replace the mulch in the trail every 2-3 years and have just 3 short visits throughout each the growing season to keep the weed population very low. In a site like this, a very small (1 acre) prairie in an urban environment like this there will always be an influx of weeds.